A Literature Review by A.M. Kent
Abstract
The content within this discussion looks to review the literature surrounding the growing technological spread between locales and how this has affected both crime and its ability to be solved. The first thing this dissertation will do is define what type of globalization is being reviewed, that of techno-globalization (Edgerton, 2007). From then on, a brief look into the historical context of technological propagation throughout nations and transnational markets will be discussed, as sociologists and historians still debate the origin of techno-globalization. Once a basic timeline of the evolution of technological globalized advancements has been established, the literature surrounding modern-day technologies and their implications on both law enforcement and civilians will be assessed. Most notably surveillance-style technologies and the benefits and public concerns that the increase of both tax-funded usage and privacy concerns these yields (Klepczarek, 2003). With the increasing interconnectedness and availability of new technological means, a discussion on the philosophical implications this has and how it should be addressed as it is invariably intertwined with modern law. New cyber-spaces are realities that are lived in as much as physical realities, therefore analysis and review of the literature surrounding new academic consensuses on technologies and the increasing notion of the ‘onlife’ is also addressed (Floridi, 2015; Pugliese, 2014). Finally, the ever-growing usage and dependence of drone and unmanned ariel technology will be discussed in two different contexts. Drones will be reviewed in the context of war crimes, where due to the vicarious controllability it is argued that it is easier to commit crimes as it is ‘less personal’ (Pugliese, 2019). Drones will also be discussed in the context of solving crime, and how they can be a valuable addition to police equipment, allowing for tricky terrain to be finessed through (Zorbas, et al., 2016). The methods used within this literature review were sources from books, academic journals, conference proceedings, a case study, and newspaper articles.
Techno-globalization: A Brief History and Evolution
First, before discussing history, a strong definition of the word ‘globalization’ will be provided, as this word will feature prominently in sometimes different variations throughout this discussion. When referring to globalization, this essay will use the techno-globalism definition (Edgerton, 2007). This posits that countries, through capitalism and other means, have allowed technological innovations to both spread and cultivate past national borders. It is a parsimonious homogeneity (a simplistic joining together) of societies intertwining to form a trade of both open knowledge and scientific endeavour and is the direct opposition to techno-nationalism which will be later evaluated (Luo, 2022). The era of the 1500s is considered by researchers O’Rourke and Williamson to be the introduction of techno-globalization, the ocean becomes highways of trade to distant lands, technologies, and goods are exchanged and people migrate from place to place. This was also known as the period when Columbus ‘discovered’ America and the slave trade began in full force (O’Rourke & Williamson, 2002). Peter Stearns argues that the globalization of technology began as early as 1000CE, a transnational form of trade started by China and the Tang and Song dynasties. The Tang dynasty saw the introduction of one of the world’s most sought-after technological commodities ‘gunpowder’. The Song dynasty further introduced paper money and the magnetic compass, both tools for revolutionizing the ability to apply a monetary value to labour and navigate through the world at a higher efficiency (Embree & Gluck, 2015; Hymes, 2015; Peterson, 2016; Yinan, 2005).
Stearns agrees that the 1500s, which saw the introduction of trade through Pacific Oceania, which included the Americas, could also be argued as a turning point (Stearns, 2016). Whilst others argue that globalised technology has always existed intertwined with human history and point to key revolutionary events as far back as the prehistoric wheel that propagated throughout Eurasia. Invented in lower Mesopotamia, which is now modern-day Iraq, the wheel saw a sharp turning point of technology spread and further excelled in the neolithic area and the bronze age (Renn & Hyman, 2012). In modern times society and techno-globalization have transformed their means of communication and interconnectedness, and the link between shared knowledge and technological advances has increased throughout all locales.
Several academics had noted this generational increase in the propagation of continuously advancing technologies between countries and, in the mid-’90s, labelled this the era of ‘Techno-globalisation’ (Edgerton, 2007; Ostry & Nelson, 1995; Mothe & Dufour, 1995). It was becoming apparent that during this era and the impending future, the notion of hoarding and developing technology locally/domestically would become a redundant prospect. Whilst even in the ’90s, researchers argued that this techno-global era would lead to technological exploitations, the journey of holistic technological homogeneity was becoming more likely than ever (Archibugi & Michie, 1995). Though shared technologies draw the conclusion to potentially more sophisticated ways of solving crime (however it is still subject to new biases), the growing interconnected state of existence means that there are few areas that are not entrenched in business ties with one another or visiting through planes, both commercial and private. This has become a notable crisis, not only for climate change activists and the general growing concern over the sustainability of our earth but also for niche grey areas of criminal activity regarding environmental law (Rahman & Alam, 2022). This has created a plethora of issues concerning academia and government bodies alike, most revolving around how to properly govern not only this era of techno-globalisation but also the increasing rate at which it is evolving. Global citizens are becoming increasingly common and as such the interconnectedness and the ability to both solve and create crime have become increasingly complex in their nature (Gardner-McTaggart & Palmer, 2017; Talani, 2019).
In the new era of techno-globalism, it is said that nations are reduced to mere ‘global villages’ (McLuhan, 1962) and are seen by globalists as momentary forms of technology sharing transport from one locale to another, that nationalistic identity is slowly dissolving. This differs from a Globo-nationalist perspective, which would argue that nations are responsible for the innovative ideas that create such technologies, and their culture and identity are integral to the process (Edgerton, 2007; Ariely, 2012). Techno-nationalism, however, has been criticised for adopting a Eurocentric view of technological advancement, claiming that certain nations are more suited to this ‘technological evolution’ than others. Whilst the sharing of tech was originally coined in the twentieth century as a phrase by Theodore Levitt to describe rich countries imparting goods upon countries with less capital (Levitt, 1983). What started with Britain and France primarily, and later India, technology sharing has now spread into technological imitation. Notably seen in Russia and America, or China and Japan, which has caused significant spikes in economic standings (Edgerton, 2007). During the era of the cold war, for example, techno-nationalism was the prevailing form of mechanized evolution, as countries hoarded their advancements to gain strategic upper hands. However, as the cold war ended, and the 1990s began, techno-globalism, revived by China as the prevailing conduit of this era through Asia emerged (Nakayama, 2012). In more modern times the race for technological supremacy is mainly between China and America, especially concerning AI systems that can recognise faces in crowds, lead to suspects through algorithms, and create better intel on transnational criminal organisations. America has had such a great concern for this that they have implemented technology embargos, ceasing trade with certain regions of AI-specific tech. This move goes against tech-globalists’ ideas on the spread of technology and might see a return to more tech-nationalist times reminiscent of bygone eras (Rikap & Lundvall, 2021).
The changing moment that technologies grew rapidly in both complexity and transnational spread is referred to as the 4IR (4th industrial revolution) (Skilton & Felix, 2018). What began with Fordism (started by Henry Ford in the 1920s, dividing labour into manual and mechanic, to utilize for mass production (Jessop, 2005).With the global spread of capitalism and its automation technologies, the 4th industrial revolution further progressed, starting in 2011. The term was originally created by the executive chairman of the World Economic Forum, Klaus Schwab (Schwab, 2017). The 4IR curtails from original Fordism’s automation, into a post-Fordism that is heightening it into a near completely digital world that dissolves physical analogues. (Becker & Weissenbacher, 2020; Abe, 2021; Jessop, 2005). Much of the 4IR success is attributed to the era of pure innovation, something, as stated by academics in the field, is impossible without the foundations to springboard from (Amadi-Echendu, 2021). AI, drone technologies, virtual realities, and a vast ever-expanding interconnectedness through social media platforms have defined the 4IR as in ‘full swing’. These technologies are no longer the product of imaginations in science fictional works, they exist, and they are in the main completely available to the public. Drones and virtual reality can help capture crime scenes, recreate them for forensic evidence, and even help juries understand the sequence of events in the courtroom. Image mapping and interwoven 3D renders of locales can be spliced into a transparent spectator view of the potential past sequence of events. (Thiruchelvam, et al., 2022).
Capitalism demands globalisation more than any other societal structure, as consumerism of goods lies within its foremost tenants (Carolan, 2005). Knowledge passed between international borders defines all aspects of modern life, from materialism to advancements, economic capital, and the sustaining of our world through scientific means (Stehr, 2007). Technological advancements shared between global interconnectedness are vital and have a long history, an example of this is the 19th-century railways and shipping, aiding communication between locales. In modern times, information and communication technologies are a primary drive for capitalist societies and globalization, as they benefit the life of the citizen and institutions in almost every possible facet (Kalim, 2018). Modern technology-driven globalization has ushered in new forms of mass media, social media, and a technologically driven evolution within major institutions within society, such as the police (Henslin, et al., 2015). To counteract global legal human rights laws have been set to include less ill-defined and contrasting global legality. However, it has been argued that Western societies enforce human rights, amongst other global laws, with little care for other cultures and societal structures outside of capitalism (Lindahl, 2018). Higher crime rates are said to weaken the social capital of a society (Rosenfeld, et al., 2001), which goes against the very idea behind globalisation itself. Additionally, a paper studying the effects of globalisation and crime, specifically if trade liberalisation had increased the rate of criminal activity in each area found that crime rates are increased in locations with an emphasis on labour abundancy, as opposed to the latter where labour was more scarce, criminal activity was lower (Gosh, et al., 2016). This could be due to rural areas in general having lower crime rates than high population dense and urbanised areas with more work opportunities, despite surveillance technologies being more prominent in urbanised areas (Ladbrook, 2016; McCahill, 2013).
Globalized Technology and Crime
Surveillance technologies have allowed offenders to be identified throughout the streets more easily than ever, along with reducing crime rates by up to 28% (Alexandrie, 2017; Rawat, et al., 2023; Coleman & McCahill, 2010), and further GPS technology has increased the efficiency of these advancements. In fact, recent studies have interrogated the role that technology has in an increasingly modernized and globalized society and found that almost across the board it is advantageous for crime prevention (Anderez, et al., 2021). A group of researchers conducted a 40-year longitudinal meta-analysis on the effectiveness of surveillance technologies in both crime prevention and solving and found a significant positive correlation (Piza, et al., 2018). The areas that reaped the highest level of benefits from surveillance technologies were carparks and residential areas, as both saw a significant decrease in crime and an increase in solving any crimes that had occurred. The meta-analysis concluded by stating that it is advised that CCTV technologies in an ever-evolving climate are evaluated thoroughly, and potentially considered for policy changes to match technological changes (Piza, et al., 2018). However, it is worth noting that an increase in CCTV technologies, although brings benefits in identification and prevention. It also brings an ethical problem in policing, as too much of it, as the French sociologist Durkheim thought (Durkheim & Bellah, 1975), can be unhealthy for a society. As crime itself is needed for a healthy society to function properly (Cohen & Machalek, 2016). CCTV technologies have also come under scrutiny during a Brisbane conference, in which points were raised regarding the validity of its utilization of taxpayer money and its invasion of public privacy (Klepczarek, 2003).
It is not just surveillance technologies that help both prevent crime and solve it however, in the field of forensic criminology, advancements in both procuring and analyzing DNA such as fingerprinting, and fingerprint analysis is widely used. This has helped see crimes that in the past would have been considered virtually ‘unsolvable’, are now solved through the induction of these new technological means and methods (Roewer, 2013). However, it is worth discussing opposing data, fingerprint data is often seen as two categories. It is either a match or not, however, this does not illuminate the potential grey areas of problematic and even subjective random fingerprint testing. This can create what is known as false acquittals where a potentially guilty offender is exonerated on either new or lack of fingerprint evidence (Garrett, et al., 2018). Furthermore, an issue in fingerprinting analysis lies within the experts that compare the data, which although heavily aided by technology is still subjective to a degree. This can create a stalemate, where fingerprint evidence in any form is disregarded depending on the efficiency of the defensive expert’s rebuttal (Mitchell & Brandon, 2021).
Even advancements in finding a crime that has yet to even be reported are becoming available, as thermal imaging is becoming more widespread in its utilization for investigation purposes to help find both drugs and potential bodies (Gardner & Krouskup, 2018). Criminology as a form of academic study is also challenged by this emerging era of hyper-techno-globalization. As technologies evolve, scholars argue that so must the discipline if it is to stand a chance in remaining relevant in an increasingly ‘reflexive society and government’ both practically and theoretically. This is a term notably used by sociologists such as Giddens and Chaffee defined as a built-in changing and reflexing of identity on a micro level to an eventual entire society on a macro level (Chaffee, 2019). Evolving liberal societies (primarily West-centric and Eurocentric in ideas of societal idealism) demand technologies of both agency and performance, meaning that the individuals within society must both have the ability to use the power of these technologies and for them to perform, and the study of crime is no exception (Chan, 2012).
Global technologies are controversially referred to as a symbol of progression within capitalist societies (Ellul, 2018), and the effects of having a society and authoritative institution that keeps ‘up to date’ provides citizens with both a level of hesitancy and security. A dispute has arisen in this area between academics who argue that globalization should remain a pivotal component to finance, economics, or international relations between nations, but that it should not incorporate itself into criminology more than it must. However, such a knock-on effect is inevitable, as although there is no ‘police of the world’, there is a holistic merging of culture, people, and most importantly to this discussion, technology (Pakes, 2013). The introduction of ‘modern media’ such as radio, cable news à la CNN (Cable News Network), and television acted as a final nail in the proverbial coffin of the individual’s national bubble. Now global influence was increasingly unavoidable, and the country one exists within was no longer the object of perspective, it had now been extended worldwide. This invokes Pugliese and his work around the ‘law as prosthetic’ (Pugliese, 2014), which posits that the law will always be in a state of amalgamation with technology, stemming from the very technology of language that caused it (Pakes, 2013; Warren & Palmer, 2015; Pugliese, 2014). Whilst Pugliese will be discussed later during the examination of drone technologies, his proclamation of this intertwined nature further cements the poignant relationship that globalization and criminology must share.
The concept of harm has been both altered and reintroduced within the discipline of criminology and the purposes of crime-based institutes (Alvesalo-Kuusi, et al., 2022; Wood, 2021). This is due to technologies reshaping modern life now that the individual’s existence is no longer as heavily based within ‘physical reality’ and more within a ‘hyper-reality/cyberspace’ ( a near-perfect blending of physical and cyber realities) akin to theories by Marc Auge’s ‘placelessness’(The uniformity of places both physical and virtual, and the loss of their distinguishing features) and Baudrillard’s ‘hyper-reality/telia’ (The inability to distinguish reality from simulation e.g. vicarious drone crime which will be discussed later) (Nunes, 1995; Auge, 2009; Smith, 2015; Silvestri, 2022). The most defining philosophical theory in this area, however, is that of ‘critical realism’ (the contrasting perceptions of physical reality and observable reality (Wood, 2021)). Through critical realism, criminologist Mark Wood identifies the four types of harm that can become a byproduct of technology, and thus form grounds of merit for their existence as a crime or inception into one. Wood introduces a stratigraphic approach (one of the multiple layers of strata), this approach allows him to analyze the segments of socio-human relations through technology that leads to both crime and its prevention. Examples of socio-human relations that could lead to harm are radicalization through online subcultures, stalking, and obsessive psychological fetishization that can lead to acts of harm, black markets of illegal goods, and more. For the reality of cyberspace, although accessed by the individual, it is produced and sustained by the collective, and as such functions as a hidden ontology. However, the implication of such a stratigraphic dissection is to avoid labelling technological reality as merely an alternate social structure (Wood, 2021).
Italian and British philosopher Luciano Floridi has specialized much of his work in the implications of ethics and technology, even coining the phrase ‘onlife’. This is a mode of existence in a hyperconnected online existence that is both more appealing and more advantageous to primarily exist within for people. It comes opposing reality, in which space and time separate large portions of people, this aspect will be discussed in the chapter regarding interconnectedness further (Floridi, 2015). Where Floridi’s relevancy within this section comes is his discussion on the ethics of technology. Whilst based more so within philosophy then criminology or sociology, these subjects bleed into each other at times and are intrinsically linked. Floridi poses the question of when crimes will blur the lines of zemiology and law through technology, and although this sounds vague at first, through dissection his point becomes more understandable. It is considered an act of harmless solitude for many people to play video games, where they murder and commit a manner of crimes in simulated realities. However, Floridi posits that there is a middle ground between utter simulation, such as video game characters, and physical reality. This middle ground he describes as dating sites, social media, and social avatars, the point at which the two realities meet (Floridi, 2015; Floridi, 2015).
Interconnectedness and Cybercrime
This section of the discussion surrounding the evolution of global technologies and crime will start with the academic and philosopher Luciano Floridi. The onlife Manifesto, a key work by Floridi puts forth the notion that we live in a hyperconnected era. This is the direct result of the previous era we had existed within, modernity, an era that was focused on the progression of all ‘intellectual’ pursuits within society, such as technology, science, ethics. Floridi posits that modernity chased a holistic collective mind that the information flow of new technologies and interconnectedness promised. However, it is pointed out that this is in turn an illusion, and the contrasts of different consensus still very much exists, just now within even deeper and complex forms (Floridi, 2015). There is a holistic creation to be made through the evolution of technology Floridi states, but one that relies on abundances of information, calling it the ‘infosphere’. This, in turn, means that society will become reliant upon technology as its once structural integrity that was grounded primarily withing the physical world, is exchanged in turn for information communication technologies (Pagallo, 2015). Such drastic transformations have created a new study on the nature of human behavior, as the strong lines in which humans defined themselves are progressively blurred. This abstraction of definitive biological behavior comes with the dissolution of capitalisms once industrial, physical structure, and in return a techno-capitalism has formed. In layman’s terms, a question arises of if the technology influences our behavior, or if our behavior (biology) influences how we use the technology. Human behavior, despite many of the humanities and biological sciences attempts, remains somewhat unpredictable due to the combination of self-awareness and free-will. In earlier times of modernity, before we lived in an ’infosphere’, our unpredictable nature was contained within the confines of a physical, mostly observable reality, now it has pierced ontological layers, and our free-will extends deeper than ever (Peters & Jandrić, 2019).
Researchers Faith Gordon et al implement Floridi’s idea of onlife and discuss examples of how the meeting point of the two can transfer into harm. They discuss doxxing, which is where one acquires enough information to either leak someone’s personal information such as their address or card details. They further reference racialization of crime that has either occurred already or is being planned by groups, in a form of radicalization. Finally, and in direct reference to Floridi, they discuss gender-based violence that can stem from interactions online through dating sites (Gordon, et al., 2022).
Focusing on doxxing, whilst the act itself is not inherently harmful, in a primary sense, it is susceptible to all manners of secondary harms. In what is essentially a harm structure, the leaking of an individual’s personal information in both small and large quantities lift the veil of anonymity that the internet supplies. This, for most individuals, is not an advantageous position to be in, and can open possibilities regarding stalking, bodily harm, threats, and other manners of harm (Anderson & Wood, 2022). In Hong Kong, doxxing has become a serious issue, especially for police officers, as they comprised 1500 of the 4700 complaints of doxxing crimes in 2019 (Carmen, 2022). There are grey areas when it comes to doxxing, such as defining when it becomes a harm on one’s privacy or an observation. People who share public photos on social media of their activities, whereabouts, name, and other personal identifying information can accidentally doxx themselves. Whilst non-consenting doxxing, where personal information is hacked and leaked to either ruin the individual’s reputation or cause them harm is considered a harm of privacy. This is a particularly tough crime to solve structurally in Hong Kong because of its grey areas regarding zemiology. Additionally, in Hong Kong specifically, individuals who are arrested for the crime are often those who have leaked information regarding police officers. This is considered the priority even though there are websites, that continuously change domain names, with the sole purpose of doxxing people it deems as enemies to Hong Kong’s societal structure (Tsui, 2020). Citizens see doxxing as the only way they can reprimand police, as the power balance is significantly one sided. It is further used to define who is an undercover officer in protests and who is an actual protestor. However, these explanations can be seen as ways of legitimizing doxxing, which further supplements the grey area that is resides in. Much of the protesting using doxxing in Hong Kong is said to be a reaction to certain segments within the national security law enacted in 2020 (Carmen, 2022; Li & Whitworth, 2022). Hong Kong saw its cybersecurity being surpassed with doxxing not just by members within Chinese society but also outside of it (George, 2022; Zhao, 2021).
Inequalities that exist within society are also hyper-enhanced on social media sites that allow users to express themselves to the masses. This can range from leaking private photos of an individual to inciting hate rhetoric to a large group, amplifying potential threats and damages. Data analysis that looked at social media related crime found that women and children are targeted vastly more than other categories, thus amplifying the inequalities of marginalized groups within society (Salter, 2016). Through analytical clustering, recent research has suggested that tagging certain speech tag patterns on the social media platform twitter can lead to fruitful data on both crime rates and criminal structures. When compared with actual crime rate data within India, the clustering system showed that it was both accurate and fast, providing a potential avenue for more reliable crime statistics (Thanh, et al., 2020). Furthermore, tech giants such as Twitter and Facebook have been called into question regarding their policies on the potential platforms, they give to hate speech, citing that there is a strong correlation between hate speech in online forms and real-life forms. Hate speech and hate crimes have risen in the UK, and a study was conducted to see if this rise of hate speech on social media specifically is independent of an event that could potentially cause it to ‘flare up’. The study found that hate speech online and its transference to action in real life are indeed strongly correlated and can almost be traced on an induvial case by case basis. Additionally, the study echoed a similar suggestion to Thanh et al., that monitoring speech patterns online could both drive predictive policing away from minority areas and ease tensions by focusing instead on hate speech (Williams, et al., 2020).
There is a plethora of data surrounding hate crimes that has been conducted recently, this section will sum up primary findings and discussions revolving around crime data and social media. A conference based on research that analysed 100 cities within America found that it supported studies previously mentioned in this segment, that there is a positive correlation between hate crimes in the physical world and hate speech online (Relia, et al., 2019). Another study in the same vein found that sites like Facebook and Twitter act as echo chambers, constantly reverberating the sometimes-extremist opinions of particularly right-wing politics. They further correlated data with outages of these sites and found that the more the individual uses social media and engages with extremist content, the higher the chance of them producing hate crimes (Müller & Schwarz, 2021). A study that looked at hate crimes within Russian cities found similar correlations, however, it is stated within the study that such exacerbation of hate crimes through social media only occurs in cities that already hold nationalist anti-diversity views. The data also suggested that social media had the ability to obscure the perception of hate speech and crime and its acceptability, which can be attributed to the echo chamber algorithms that is present within large online sharing platforms (Bursztyn, et al., 2019). There is however an issue with removing speech on these platforms, as it enters an ambiguous area of free-speech rights, which threatens if overly enforced a totalitarian style government. In fact, hate speech removal in the main by authorities and big tech social media platforms is inconsistent, and the United States in general allows for the removal of speech at the owner of the site’s discretion. Whilst other areas, such as Germany, give allotted time periods in when the post must be removed if it is deemed hateful (Laub, 2019). In the United States alone, during the 2019 pandemic, there was a reported 100 hate crimes a day, many towards Asian-Americans, stemming from social media. It was found that those who used Facebook daily were more likely to view China and Asian citizens as a symbolic threat, which stemmed from information being shared around the site along with perceptions on the pandemic. The results of the study interestingly found a correlation between trusting the social media platform of the individual’s choice, and the perceived threat of China and citizens with Chinese heritage (Croucher, et al., 2020).
One of the primary problems of using social media as a medium for crime solving legal agencies are finding, is that the influx of overwhelming data from all facets of the internet make it hard to quantify and zone in on specific potential threats. Researchers originally created a biometric system that would quantify data, predict patterns, and overall help narrow searches for legal agencies investigating crime through social media, the original mode was known as the SMONT ontology (Kalemi, et al., 2017). This system focused on smart data analysis and intelligence hoarding, quantifying what was useful and disregarding what was not. As explained in a presentation by lead researcher Ogerta Elezaj, which can be found on YouTube, the system relies on shaping the structure of the data, meaning it can classify different crimes through the common use of language (Kalemi, et al., 2017; Elezaj, 2018). In 2020, the group refined this model, increasing both its capabilities and accuracy, into something they now called CISMO. This new software focuses more so on ‘semantic’ processes, meaning that it focuses on language and uses the logical conclusions from language patterns to both predict the future and reveal links to hidden crimes (Elezaj, et al., 2020). With a plethora of researchers creating systems of detection through speech and language patterns to aid crime-solving efforts, social media will remain a significant point of interest for both global crime and domestic crime. Social media supplies the individual with whatever level of anonymity they desire, the more anonymity (random usernames, no links to personal life etc…) the difference in speech through posts is drastic, compared to individuals whose profile more closely resemble their real-world identity (Correa, et al., 2015).
Drone Technology: Solving and Committing Crime
Revisiting an academic previously mentioned, one of the primary researchers in the field of drone usage, crime, and globalization is Joseph Pugliese. However, there is another academic who also specializes in drone usage with a similar name, Luigi Pugliese. Luigi Pugliese along with a group of researchers explores multiple ways in which drones can help prevent and solve crime. One of the ways he discusses in a literate review is through its ability to become a tool of surveillance. Drones can access tough to reach locations and have photographic and video recording equipment equipped during routes. This supplies ample benefits for police and government authorities. However, the technology, still in its infancy in many ways, comes with weaknesses. Throughout the literature review, Pugliese and others discuss how the route mapping systems of drones are not without flaw. They analyze this through its usage in delivery of packages for companies such as ‘Amazon’ (Pugliese, et al., 2020). Furthermore, drones are expensive and require a high level of energy consumption, this consumption increases drastically the higher the altitude becomes. This poses a cumbersome problem for multiple drone usage or even high-altitude drone usage of both static and in-motion targets. The higher the altitude of the drone, the more it can survey, and in as such Pugliese posits solutions based on integral linear and mixed non-integral linear solutions. Integrals are primarily used to assess deviations and forms (such as point-slope or slope intercept) in data and using these models Pugliese suggests algorithmic solutions to cost issues (Zorbas, et al., 2016).
Joseph Pugliese primarily focuses on the military kind of drone and legislations that are put up to both shield states from repercussions of their dehumanizing use (such as the war on terror), along with the laws that hinder drone usage. This monopolization by the west primarily on the usage of drones in military contexts has allowed a dehumanizing, pseudospeciation (the separation of cultures and identities potentially leading to a dehumanizing effect on individuals existence and its value (Kay, 2020)) of the global south to occur. Pugliese argues that this has introduced a future-colonialist outlook, and he notes both the Appin massacre and the Cypress Hills colonial massacre in Canada as evidence of drone’s potentiality to strip humans of their human essence through legalities surrounding military endeavors (Pugliese, 2019; Pugliese, 2013). Due to this increasing occurrence of machine-based warfare that encroaches on grey areas within legalities, Joseph Pugliese proposes a law as prosthetics. This law would acknowledge the intertwined nature of technology and law and recognize the risk of pseudospeciation that a ground controller of a drone would feel. This harkens back to ideas based on hyper-reality, as the user of the drone, although causing havoc and desolation in the physical world, feels a disconnect. This segregation of user and action comes down to the vicarious usage of complex technologies, and a law as prosthetics would, in Pugliese’ mind, counteract this (Pugliese, 2014).
An interesting area of crime solving that involves the usage of drone technology is cases of missing people, this is a move away from military style drones and instead focuses on a more conventional idea of a drone. Italy has seen a significant increase in the amount of missing people and subsequent investigations over the last 10 years. This has caused the country to investigate alternate forms of solving this influx of cases, and in as such, they have turned to drone technology. Drones can cover large land masses in relatively short amounts of time, along with recording footage that can later be analyzed. They are also able to traverse confined spaces easier along with proving a versatility that humans cannot (Pensieri, et al., 2020). One of the areas that has found drones particularly useful is finding missing or endangered people during wildfires. Drones can not only spot potential beginnings of fires, whether occurring naturally or by an arsonist, they also have the potential to identify people through smoke and low visibility areas with special lenses fitted to the camera. A problem that researcher Khosravi brings up, however, is that like previously mentioned, drones must find better path finding algorithms if not piloted by a human (Pugliese, et al., 2020). If they are piloted by a human, the human should be preferably trained in piloting drones for the most efficient result. The suggestion that Pensieri makes is that teams should be deployed in such events who specialize in that given area and are able to make the most out of the technology (Khosravi, et al., 2022; Pensieri, et al., 2020).
Mentioned previously, drones or unmanned ariel vehicles can become equipped with special lenses and further supplemented technology to increase their uses. One of the supplementary technologies that can be used parsimoniously with UAVs is a facial recognition software, that will remember the face of either the missing person or the criminal it is looking for (Raj, et al., 2019; Shanthi, et al., 2021). A study conducted on the accuracy of this software found that if the angle is within 37 degrees, the algorithm within the machine can detect facial structures with up to a 98.6% accuracy rate (Shanthi, et al., 2021). Search and rescue missions have implemented this kind of technology more frequently, as also discussed earlier. The research on the accuracy suggests that both the angle and the accuracy rates would allow for drones or UAVS to be switched out and maintain a high level of accuracy (Shanthi, et al., 2021; Ridolfi, et al., 2017; Kang & Kim, 2020). A limitation that research has associate with drone usage in search and rescue is that it requires a group of officers, consistently checking the footage over for signs of the person. Whilst the previously mentioned research and facial recognition software by Shanti could be seen as a viable solution to this limitation. Further studies have delved into the demand of human labor and its automation, this has notably been discussed in relation to 2D mappings in real-time. The map would be a web map and would be subject to analysis of spatiality through the AI software implemented, thus potentially reducing human labor efforts on footage analysis. This information was discussed in the 13th international information and communication technology convergence (Su Kim, et al., 2022). In another conference, although different, similar things were discussed by a group of academics. Location commands along with the software intertwined with the drone and its ability to single out faces amongst a crowd was discussed during the conference. It was concluded that the software, if used more, would only evolve in its methods of deducing relevant faces amongst non-relevant facial structures. This would allow room for an advancement in the technology, a potential of both finding wanted offenders and rescuing missing people, along with refining GPS location commands and facial recognition AI capabilities (Pareek, et al., 2019).
There are growing concerns in drone technology fields that this dissertation wishes to touch upon, however. The increasing utilization of drones in crime prevention and solving to many is seen as just another form of the ever-evolving ways in which justice can be served. To others, it is another and more efficient way for authority agencies to spy and ‘domesticate’ us under the guise of ‘justice’ (Neville, 2020; Wood, et al., 2009). The common reference brought up in this discussion is a concept explored in George Orwell’s dystopian novel ‘1984’, that surveils the city with cameras to keep them in line and impose the will of ‘big brother’(a mystical character that always watches for hints of structural disbandment) (Orwell, 2008; Sakiyama, et al., 2017). Arguments have risen against this portrait of drone usage as a symbol of ‘big brother’, arguing that a case known as ‘Florida vs Royer’ that allowed the supreme court to establish in America that drone usage or unmanned ariel systems did not encroach on the fourth amendment (Royer, 460 U.S. 491, 1983). In times that predate such technology, police and detectives would not have to request permission or acquire a warrant if they wished to shadow a suspect’s movements. Academics, in the case of drone usage, argue that drones are widely available to the public as well as justice institutions. They further posit that if they do not leave public airspace, they are not providing any unfair advantage (Reid, 2014). Moreover, research in this discussion is quick to point out the near pedantic levels of information the government requires we submit to them to tackle ‘terrorism’ or other preventative purposes. It is no secret that our lives down to a day-by-day basis are in some way quantified within a system, this aspect will be further discussed in the next segment involving social media and interconnectedness. Facial recognition software has created legal grey areas in its applications and is now a requirement to merely pass through an airport. Automated license plate readers track journeys so that every one’s whereabouts can be roughly always gauged. The more time passes the more information is released through trails and leaks on just how closely our existences are being documented, which Dr Hodge Jr, amongst others argue is a hard parallel to Orwell’s phrase ‘big brother is watching’, maybe too hard to ignore (Orwell, 2008; Hodge Jr, 2020).
AUS/ Drones undeniably bring many advantages to crime prevention and solving, they can finesse through trickier terrain as previously mentioned. They can keep electronic records of time and views that otherwise would be deemed impossible. They are cost-efficient, drastically reducing police funding on helicopters, along with human labor requirements (Smith, 2015; Finn, 2011). Despite this, due to growing unsure attitudes towards authority agencies within society, most notably in America through the ‘Black Lives Matter’ movement, public consensus on drone usage is shaky at best (Markowitz, et al., 2017). Drones have not just been used outside of military settings as detection machines, in Dallas a drone was incorporated into a scheme of delivering explosives that detonated on an active shooter. Lethal police force is often the subject of heavy public and institutional scrutiny and dissection, and as a result bodycams have been fitted to most forces recording every move of an on-duty officer. Interestingly, whilst the support for drone usage in search and rescues by the public is 80%, the support for drones monitoring cars to issue speeding tickets is at a much lower 20%. When the study was repeated in 2016, there was a significant increase in search and rescue support, that had moved up to 98%, but only 47% support its usage in crow control operations (Heen, et al., 2018). A more recent 2022 wide-scale literary review concerning public consensus and drone usage found that opinions on drones are more dependent on socio-culture factors, for example the level of high-tech technology that is seen in daily life within an area. They found that there was both universal perceived risks and benefits by the public on drones. The risks included invasions of privacy, misusage by authority, potential damage that they could cause and the grey area concerning legality and liability they could bring into discussion. The benefits of cost efficiency and labor effective ways of responding to emergencies where also noted, and it seems as though for the time being drone usage is supported in the main (Sabino, et al., 2022).
Conclusion
This literature review began with a definition of globalisation, taking the term ‘techno-globalism’ as its roots. It is worth exploring this concept and what relevancy it holds within the multitude of academic literature discussed and referenced within the body of this dissertation. Techno-globalism at its core, is the propagation of technology between locales, something that directly opposes techno-nationalism, which favours hoarding technology. With the rise of capitalism, that’s techno-globalist surge and its exact pinpoint in history is flexible and open for interpretation. The idea of technologies propagation between nations of power is not. For a parsimonious market and holistic global homogeneity to work, scientific endeavours and knowledge attained through all disciplines must be open and shared. Whilst this is still a heavily flawed concept and we are still far from a perfect technological utopia, the sharing of tech has drastically increased, and techno-globalism is in effect (be it debatable to what degree). Additionally, crime and technology are becoming intrinsically intertwined, as higher urbanised and ‘modernised’ (although this is a debatable term) areas are seeing spikes in both crime and its complexity. However, as discussed, with new complexities within criminal activity, new complexities in solving said activity is in play. This is the yin and yang of an increasing globalised and interconnected world.
Drone technology equipped with special lenses and facial recognition technology has allowed for the search of missing people and the tracking of the spread of natural disasters at a more efficient rate than ever. This, as discussed, has allowed not only missing people to be found using facial recognition software, or even thermal scoping to spot them amongst the dark, a crowd or even the haze of a forest fire. It has also raised concerns on how much security is worth, and if it can reach a point where it invades the privacy of the individuals within society all in the name of ‘justice’. This can be seen when thermal drones scan houses for potential drug farms, looking through the walls and roofs of people’s private domains without their knowledge or a warrant. Furthermore, drones are publicly available, and as such, they can be used both as a tool for good and for bad. There is also an issue raised on the vicarious detachment that drone technology bestows upon the user. As this can be seen in Pugliese’s work on military drones and how war crimes are more easily committed because of this dehumanising aspect of technology. A law of prosthetics is even called into consideration because of techno-globalisation, because of this vicarious spectatorship that can be created by potentially lethal technological means. If global technologies are to be flourished within all societies (although, as discussed it is mostly western-centric), then the law must begin to consider it as an extension of the human, and like ideas around the cyborg, an extension of the law also.
Additionally, with the spread of the individual’s ability to connect to larger audiences, what defines as ‘hate speech’ is also analysed. This phenomenon is further enhanced by the anonymity that social media platforms allow the user, thus making them feel less accountable for potential harm they incite through verbal text. This has also made it harder to track potential criminals who use this cyber anonymity to conduct illegal acts, and due to this special software is being used in initial stages to detect speech patterns. This is still in its infancy, and therefore, it is hard to reliably use it and call it accurate, however, the technology does exist, and it is beginning to be explored on how it can help solve crime within the spaces of virtual reality. There is also an issue regarding the responsibility of the platform that hosts potential hate speech, and how closely such platforms are moderated to eradicate potentially harmful posts. The concluding statement of this dissertation is that the finding through the literature suggest that more specific research is needed in this area. There is much research in facets of these Globo-technologies but no real comprehensive study on the evolution of it relating to crime as a whole.
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